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African armyworm
| African armyworm | |
|---|---|
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Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Superfamily: | Noctuoidea |
| Family: | Noctuidae |
| Genus: | Spodoptera |
| Species: | S. exempta
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| Binomial name | |
| Spodoptera exempta (Walker, 1856)
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| Synonyms | |
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The African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta), also called okalombo, kommandowurm, or nutgrass armyworm, is a species of moth of the family Noctuidae. The larvae often exhibit marching behavior when traveling to feeding sites, leading to the common name "armyworm".[1] The caterpillars exhibit density-dependent polyphenism where larvae raised in isolation are green, while those raised in groups are black. These phases are termed solitaria and gregaria, respectively.[2] Gregaria caterpillars are considered very deleterious pests, capable of destroying entire crops in a matter of weeks. The larvae feed on all types of grasses, early stages of cereal crops (e.g., corn, rice, wheat, millet, sorghum), sugarcane, and occasionally on coconut.[3][4] The solitaria caterpillars are less active and undergo much slower development.[1] The species is commonly found in Africa, but can also be seen in Yemen, some Pacific islands, and parts of Australia.[5] African armyworm outbreaks tend to be devastating for farmland and pasture in these areas, with the highest-density outbreaks occurring during the rainy season after periods of prolonged drought.[6][7] During the long dry seasons ("off-season"), the population densities are very low and no outbreaks are seen.[3]
- ^ a b Simmonds, M.S.J.; Blaney, W.M. (1986). "Effects of rearing density on development and feeding behaviour in larvae of Spodoptera exempta". Journal of Insect Physiology. 32 (12): 1043–1053. Bibcode:1986JInsP..32.1043S. doi:10.1016/0022-1910(86)90124-1.
- ^ Gunn, A (1998). "The determination of larval phase coloration in the African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta and its consequences for thermoregulation and protection from UV light". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 86 (2): 125–13. Bibcode:1998EEApp..86..125G. doi:10.1046/j.1570-7458.1998.00273.x. S2CID 85586316.3
- ^ a b Odiyo, P.O. (1981). "Development of the first outbreaks of the African armyworm Spodoptera exempta (Walk.), between Kenya and Tanzania during the 'off-season' months of July to December". Insect Science and Its Application. 1 (4): 305–318. doi:10.1017/s1742758400000606. S2CID 85994702.
- ^ Yarrow, J. G.; Otindo, B. L.; Gatehouse, A. G.; Lubega, M. C. (1981). "Dwarf variety of coconut, Cocos nucifera (Palmae), a host plant for the African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Walk.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)". Insect Science and Its Application. 1 (4): 361–362. doi:10.1017/s1742758400000667. S2CID 88007323.
- ^ Rose, D. J. W., Dewhurst, C.F. and Page, W. W. 2000. The African Armyworm Handbook (2nd Edn). NRI, Chatham, UK, 304 pp ISBN 978-0859545235
- ^ Haggis, M. J. 1984. Distribution, frequency of attack and seasonal incidence of the African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Walk.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), with particular reference to Africa and south-western Arabia. Tropical Development Research Institute, London, Report No. L69, pp. 116.
- ^ Haggis, M. J. (1986). "Distribution of the African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and the frequency of larval outbreaks in Africa and Arabia". Bulletin of Entomological Research. 76: 151–170. doi:10.1017/s0007485300015376.
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