Environmental ethics

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In environmental philosophy, environmental ethics is an established field of practical philosophy "which reconstructs the essential types of argumentation that can be made for protecting natural entities and the sustainable use of natural resources."^[1] The main competing paradigms are anthropocentrism, physiocentrism (called ecocentrism as well), and theocentrism. Environmental ethics exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including environmental law, environmental sociology, ecotheology, ecological economics, ecology and environmental geography.

There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with respect to the environment. These decision raise numerous questions. For example:

• Should humans continue to clear cut forests for the sake of human consumption?
• What species or entities ought to be considered for their own sake, independently of its contribution to biodiversity and other extrinsic goods?^[2]
• Why should humans continue to propagate its species, and life itself? ^[3]
• Should humans continue to make gasoline-powered vehicles?
• What environmental obligations do humans need to keep for future generations?^[4][5]
• Is it right for humans to knowingly cause the extinction of a species for the convenience of humanity?
• How should humans best use and conserve the space environment to secure and expand life?^[6]
• What role can Planetary Boundaries play in reshaping the human-earth relationship?^[7]

The academic field of environmental ethics grew up in response to the works of Rachel Carson and Murray Bookchin and events such as the first Earth Day in 1970, when environmentalists started urging philosophers to consider the philosophical aspects of environmental problems. Two papers published in Science had a crucial impact: Lynn White's "The Historical Roots of our Ecologic Crisis" (March 1967)^[8] and Garrett Hardin's "The Tragedy of the Commons" (December 1968).^[9] Also influential was Garett Hardin's later essay called "Exploring New Ethics for Survival", as well as an essay by Aldo Leopold in his A Sand County Almanac, called "The Land Ethic", in which Leopold explicitly claimed that the roots of the ecological crisis were philosophical (1949).^[10]

The first international academic journals in this field emerged from North America in the late 1970s and early 1980s – the US-based journal Environmental Ethics in 1979 and the Canadian-based journal The Trumpeter: Journal of Ecosophy in 1983. The first British based journal of this kind, Environmental Values, was launched in 1992.