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Lithium-ion battery
 A 3.6 V Li-ion battery from a Nokia 3310 mobile phone | |
| Specific energy | 1–270 W⋅h/kg (3.6–972.0 kJ/kg)[1] |
|---|---|
| Energy density | 250–693 W⋅h/L (900–2,490 J/cm3)[2][3] |
| Specific power | 1–10,000 W/kg[1] |
| Charge/discharge efficiency | 80–90%[4] |
| Energy/consumer-price | 8.7 Wh/US$ (US$115/kWh)[5] |
| Self-discharge rate | 0.35% to 2.5% per month depending on state of charge[6] |
| Cycle durability | 400–1,200 cycles [7] |
| Nominal cell voltage | 3.6 / 3.7 / 3.8 / 3.85 V, LiFePO4 3.2 V, Li4Ti5O12 2.3 V |
A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses the reversible intercalation of Li+ ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. In comparison with other commercial rechargeable batteries, Li-ion batteries are characterized by higher specific energy, higher energy density, higher energy efficiency, a longer cycle life, and a longer calendar life. Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their market introduction in 1991: over the following 30 years, their volumetric energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold.[8] In late 2024 global demand passed 1 Terawatt-hour per year,[9] while production capacity was more than twice that.[10]
The invention and commercialization of Li-ion batteries may have had one of the greatest impacts of all technologies in human history,[11] as recognized by the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. More specifically, Li-ion batteries enabled portable consumer electronics, laptop computers, cellular phones, and electric cars. Li-ion batteries also see significant use for grid-scale energy storage as well as military and aerospace applications.
Lithium-ion cells can be manufactured to optimize energy or power density.[12] Handheld electronics mostly use lithium polymer batteries (with a polymer gel as an electrolyte), a lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
2) cathode material, and a graphite anode, which together offer high energy density.[13][14] Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4), lithium manganese oxide (LiMn
2O
4 spinel, or Li
2MnO
3-based lithium-rich layered materials, LMR-NMC), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO
2 or NMC) may offer longer life and a higher discharge rate. NMC and its derivatives are widely used in the electrification of transport, one of the main technologies (combined with renewable energy) for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles.[15]
M. Stanley Whittingham conceived intercalation electrodes in the 1970s and created the first rechargeable lithium-ion battery, based on a titanium disulfide cathode and a lithium-aluminium anode, although it suffered from safety problems and was never commercialized.[16] John Goodenough expanded on this work in 1980 by using lithium cobalt oxide as a cathode.[17] The first prototype of the modern Li-ion battery, which uses a carbonaceous anode rather than lithium metal, was developed by Akira Yoshino in 1985 and commercialized by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by Yoshio Nishi in 1991.[18] Whittingham, Goodenough, and Yoshino were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their contributions to the development of lithium-ion batteries.
Lithium-ion batteries can be a safety hazard if not properly engineered and manufactured because they have flammable electrolytes that, if damaged or incorrectly charged, can lead to explosions and fires. Much progress has been made in the development and manufacturing of safe lithium-ion batteries.[19] Lithium-ion solid-state batteries are being developed to eliminate the flammable electrolyte. Improperly recycled batteries can create toxic waste, especially from toxic metals, and are at risk of fire. Moreover, both lithium and other key strategic minerals used in batteries have significant issues at extraction, with lithium being water intensive in often arid regions and other minerals used in some Li-ion chemistries potentially being conflict minerals such as cobalt.[not verified in body] Both environmental issues have encouraged some researchers to improve mineral efficiency and find alternatives such as lithium iron phosphate lithium-ion chemistries or non-lithium-based battery chemistries like iron-air batteries.
There are at least 12 different chemistries of Li-ion batteries; see "List of battery types."
- ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
mwwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "NCR18650B" (PDF). Panasonic. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
- ^ "NCR18650GA" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
- ^ Valøen, Lars Ole; Shoesmith, Mark I. (1–2 November 2007). The effect of PHEV and HEV duty cycles on battery and battery pack performance (PDF). Proceedings of the Plug-in Highway Electric Vehicle Conference. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2009.
- ^ "Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Prices See Largest Drop Since 2017, Falling to $115 per Kilowatt-Hour: BloombergNEF". Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 10 December 2024. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Redondo-Iglesias-2016was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Battery Types and Characteristics for HEV Archived 20 May 2015(Date mismatch) at the Wayback Machine ThermoAnalytics, Inc., 2007. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
- ^ Chagas, Luciana Gomes; Jeong, Sangsik; Hasa, Ivana; Passerini, Stefano (26 June 2019). "Ionic Liquid-Based Electrolytes for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Tuning Properties To Enhance the Electrochemical Performance of Manganese-Based Layered Oxide Cathode". ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 11 (25): 22278–22289. doi:10.1021/acsami.9b03813. ISSN 1944-8244. PMID 31144802.
- ^ Maisch, Marija (20 December 2024). "Annual lithium-ion demand surpasses 1 TWh for the first time". Energy Storage.
- ^ Rayner, Tristan (2 January 2025). "The battery boom of 2024 as one of five trends in renewables". Energy Storage.
- ^ The lithium-ion battery: State of the art and future perspectives. 2018. Renew Sust Energ Rev. 89/292-308. G. Zubi, R. Dufo-Lopez, M. Carvalho, G. Pasaoglu. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.002.
- ^ Lain, Michael J.; Brandon, James; Kendrick, Emma (December 2019). "Design Strategies for High Power vs. High Energy Lithium Ion Cells". Batteries. 5 (4): 64. doi:10.3390/batteries5040064.
Commercial lithium ion cells are now optimized for either high energy density or high power density. There is a trade-off in cell design between power and energy requirements.
- ^ Mauger, A; Julien, C.M. (28 June 2017). "Critical review on lithium-ion batteries: are they safe? Sustainable?" (PDF). Ionics. 23 (8): 1933–1947. doi:10.1007/s11581-017-2177-8. S2CID 103350576. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2023. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Ellis-2020was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Zhang, Runsen; Fujimori, Shinichiro (19 February 2020). "The role of transport electrification in global climate change mitigation scenarios". Environmental Research Letters. 15 (3): 034019. Bibcode:2020ERL....15c4019Z. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab6658. hdl:2433/245921. ISSN 1748-9326. S2CID 212866886.
- ^ "Binghamton professor recognized for energy research". The Research Foundation for the State University of New York. Archived from the original on 30 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2019.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2019". Nobel Prize. Nobel Foundation. 2019. Archived from the original on 21 May 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
- ^ "Yoshio Nishi". National Academy of Engineering. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
- ^ Chen, Yuqing; Kang, Yuqiong; Zhao, Yun; Wang, Li; Liu, Jilei; Li, Yanxi; Liang, Zheng; He, Xiangming; Li, Xing; Tavajohi, Naser; Li, Baohua (2021). "A review of lithium-ion battery safety concerns: The issues, strategies, and testing standards". Journal of Energy Chemistry. 59: 83–99. Bibcode:2021JEnCh..59...83C. doi:10.1016/j.jechem.2020.10.017. S2CID 228845089.
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