Islamic views on slavery

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Islamic views on slavery represent a complex and multifaceted body of Islamic thought,^[1][2] with various Islamic groups and thinkers espousing views on the matter which have been radically different throughout history.^[3] Slavery existed in pre-Islamic Arabia, and Muhammad himself was a slave owner who never expressed any intention of abolishing the practice.^[4][5][6] However, his teachings put a significant emphasis on improving the condition of slaves, and he exhorted his followers to treat them more humanely. As a consequence, slavery was recognised as a valid institution in the traditional Islamic jurisprudence, subject to certain conditions and rules.^[1][7][8][7]

Early Islamic dogma allowed enslavement of other human beings with the exception of the free members of Islamic society, including non-Muslims (dhimmis), and set out to regulate and improve the conditions of human bondage. The sharīʿah (divine law) regarded as legal slaves only those non-Muslims who were imprisoned or bought beyond the borders of Islamic rule, or the sons and daughters of slaves already in captivity.^[7] It also allowed men to have sexual relationships with slave women without the requirement of "nikah".^[9] In later classical Islamic law, the topic of slavery is covered at great length.^[3] Slaves, be they Muslim or those of any other religion, were equal to their fellow practitioners in religious issues.^[10] However, the consent of a slave for sex, for withdrawal before ejaculation (azl) or to marry her off to someone else, was historically not considered necessary.^[11] In theory, slavery in Islamic law does not have a racial or color component, although this has not always been the case in practice.^[12] Slaves played various social and economic roles, from domestic worker to high-ranking positions in the government. Moreover, slaves were widely employed in irrigation, mining, pastoralism, and the army.^[13] In some cases, the treatment of slaves was so harsh that it led to uprisings, such as the Zanj Rebellion.^[14][15]

The hadiths, which differ between Shia and Sunni,^[16] address slavery extensively, assuming its existence as part of society but viewing it as an exceptional condition and restricting its scope.^[17][18] The hadiths forbade enslavement of dhimmis, the non-Muslims of Islamic society, and Muslims. They also regarded slaves as legal only when they were non-Muslims who were imprisoned, bought beyond the borders of Islamic rule, or the sons and daughters of slaves already in captivity.^[18]

The Muslim slave trade was most active in West Asia, Eastern Europe, and Sub-Saharan Africa.^[21] After the Trans-Atlantic slave trade had been suppressed, the ancient Trans-Saharan slave trade, the Indian Ocean slave trade and the Red Sea slave trade continued to traffic slaves from the African continent to the Middle East.^[21] Estimates vary widely, with some suggesting up to 17 million slaves to the coast of the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, and North Africa.^[22] Abolitionist movements began to grow during the 19th century, prompted by both Muslim reformers and diplomatic pressure from Britain. The first Muslim country to prohibit slavery was Tunisia, in 1846.^[23] During the 19th and early 20th centuries all large Muslim countries, whether independent or under colonial rule, banned the slave trade and/or slavery. The Dutch East Indies abolished slavery in 1860 but effectively ended in 1910, while British India abolished slavery in 1862.^[24] The Ottoman Empire banned the African slave trade in 1857 and the Circassian slave trade in 1908,^[25] while Egypt abolished slavery in 1895, Afghanistan in 1921 and Persia in 1929.^[26] In some Muslim countries in the Arabian peninsula and Africa, slavery was abolished in the second half of the 20th century: 1962 in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, Oman in 1970, Mauritania in 1981.^[27] However, slavery has been documented in recent years, despite its illegality, in Muslim-majority countries in Africa including Chad, Mauritania, Niger, Mali, and Sudan.^[28][29]

One notable example is Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi, who is noted for being the first Muezzin.^[30] In modern times, various Muslim organizations reject the permissibility of slavery and it has since been abolished by all Muslim majority countries.^[31] With abolition of slavery in the Muslim world, the practice of slavery came to an end.^[32] Many modern Muslims see slavery as contrary to Islamic principles of justice and equality, however, Islam had a different system of slavery, that involved many intricate rules on how to handle slaves.^[33][34] However, there are Islamic extremist groups and terrorist organizations who have revived the practice of slavery while they were active.^[35]